The influence of number of syllables on word skipping during reading revisited.

Fitzsimmons and Drieghe (Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18, 736-741, 2011) showed that a monosyllabic word was skipped more often than a disyllabic word during reading. This finding was interpreted as evidence that syllabic information was extracted from the parafovea early enough to influence word skipping. In the present, large-scale replication of this study, in which we additionally measured the reading, vocabulary, and spelling abilities of the participants, the effect of number of syllables on word skipping was not significant. Moreover, a Bayesian analysis indicated strong evidence for the absence of the effect. The individual differences analyses replicate previous observations showing that spelling ability uniquely predicts word skipping (but not fixation times) because better spellers skip more often. The results indicate that high-quality lexical representations allow the system to reach an advanced stage in the word-recognition process of the parafoveal word early enough to influence the decision of whether or not to skip the word, but this decision is not influenced by number of syllables.

The early processing of metaphors and similes: Evidence from eye movements.

This eye movement study examined how people read nominal metaphors and similes in order to investigate how the surface form, or wording, of these expressions affected early processing. Participants silently read metaphors (knowledge is a river) and similes (knowledge is like a river). The identical words were used in the topic-vehicle pair (knowledge-river) in both conditions. Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrated longer reading times and a higher proportion of regressions in metaphors than in similes. Familiarity modulated later metaphor effects in Experiment 1, but not in Experiment 2. Reading ability did not modulate the metaphor effects in Experiment 2. Results indicate that readers revised their initial interpretation of metaphors before moving on to read new text. This suggests that readers did not initially hold figurative interpretations of apt nominal metaphors that are somewhat familiar. Metaphor interpretation may be fast, but it is not easy.

Phonological activation of word meanings in grade 5 readers.

Three experiments examined the role of phonology in the activation of word meanings in Grade 5 students. In Experiment 1, homophone and spelling control errors were embedded in a story context and participants performed a proofreading task as they read for meaning. For both good and poor readers, more homophone errors went undetected than spelling control errors. In Experiments 2 and 3, homophone and spelling control errors were in sentence contexts. Experiment 2 used an online sentence verification task, and found that both good and poor readers were less accurate when sentences contained a homophone error than a spelling control error. Furthermore, a difference between the 2 types of sentences was observed even when participants were concurrently performing an articulation task. In Experiment 3, initial reading times were shorter on homophone errors than on spelling controls, and participants were less likely to make a regression from homophone errors than spelling controls. These experiments provide clear evidence that phonology makes an important contribution to the activation of word meanings in Grade 5 readers.

Cerebral function in perinatally HIV-infected young adults and their HIV-uninfected sibling controls.

BACKGROUND: Perinatally acquired HIV-infected (PaHIV) young adults undergo neurodevelopment in the presence of HIV infection and antiretroviral therapy, which may lead to neurocognitive (NC) impairment. Knowledge of NC function in this group is sparse and control data lacking. We compared cerebral function in young adults with PaHIV infection to aged matched HIV negative family controls. METHODS: 16-25-year-old PaHIV young adults (Group 1, n = 33) and HIV-uninfected family controls (Group 2, n = 14) were recruited. Cerebral function was evaluated by: a computerized battery assessing NC function (CogState(TM)), International HIV Dementia Scale (IHDS) and the prospective and retrospective memory questionnaire (PRMQ). Eight cases and four controls also underwent (1)H cerebral magnetic resonance spectroscopy ((1)H-MRS) scanning measuring basal ganglia (BG) metabolites. Cases and controls were compared. RESULTS: Group 1 mean (SD) CD4 count; 444 (319) cells/µl, plasma HIV viral load < 50 in 55%. There were no statistically significant differences between study groups in NC function or IHDS results (P>0.27 all observations). PRMQ scores were significantly higher (42 versus 35, P = 0.02) and MRS BG inflammatory-metabolites (choline- and myo-inositol- to creatine ratios) were significantly greater in Group 1 versus Group 2 (0.83 versus 0.63, P = 0.02 and 3.43 versus 3.03.P = 0.09 respectively). No significant association between PRMQ score and MRS metabolites was observed (P = 0.89). CONCLUSION: Statistically significant differences in cerebral function parameters were observed in PaHIV young adults compared to a well-matched control population. The cognitive deficit observed, in memory, rather than fine motor function, differs from the cerebral impairment often reported in HIV-infected adults.

Hypogonadism in human immunodeficiency virus-positive men.

In recent years, the life expectancy for those living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) with access to combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) has increased. As men live longer, the role testosterone plays in sexual function as well as in general well-being is becoming increasingly important. Here we discuss the available literature concerning androgens and HIV disease. A review was undertaken by using a PubMed search with the umbrella terms HIV or AIDS and testosterone or androgens spanning 1985 to 2011. Significant articles found in references in the primary search were also included. The reported prevalence of androgen deficiency appears to be greater in HIV-infected males than in the general population. Androgen deficiency is usually associated with low luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone and is sensitive to the type of measurement of testosterone used. Rates of hypogonadism may be falling since the advent of cART. Causes of low testosterone levels have been attributed to chronic illness, HIV replication, cART, opportunistic infections, comorbidities and coinfections, wasting, and normal age-related declines. Studies of testosterone treatment in HIV-positive men are lacking in standardization and outcome measures.

Dyslexia and fluency: parafoveal and foveal influences on rapid automatized naming.

The ability to coordinate serial processing of multiple items is crucial for fluent reading but is known to be impaired in dyslexia. To investigate this impairment, we manipulated the orthographic and phonological similarity of adjacent letters online as dyslexic and nondyslexic readers named letters in a serial naming (RAN) task. Eye movements and voice onsets were recorded. Letter arrays contained target item pairs in which the second letter was orthographically or phonologically similar to the first letter when viewed either parafoveally (Experiment 1a) or foveally (Experiment 1b). Relative to normal readers, dyslexic readers were more affected by orthographic confusability in Experiment 1a and phonological confusability in Experiment 1b. Normal readers were slower to process orthographically similar letters in Experiment 1b. Findings indicate that the phonological and orthographic processing problems of dyslexic readers manifest differently during parafoveal and foveal processing, with each contributing to slower RAN performance and impaired reading fluency.

Eye movements and the perceptual span in silent and oral reading.

Previous research has examined parafoveal processing during silent reading, but little is known about the role of these processes in oral reading. Given that masking parafoveal information slows down silent reading, we asked whether a similar effect also occurs in oral reading. To investigate the role of parafoveal processing in silent and oral reading, we manipulated the parafoveal information available to readers by changing the size of a gaze-contingent moving window. Participants read silently and orally in a one-word window and a three-word window condition as we monitored their eye movements. The lack of parafoveal information slowed reading speed in both oral and silent reading. However, the effects of parafoveal information were larger in silent reading than in oral reading, because of different effects of preview information on both when the eyes move and how often. Parafoveal information benefitted silent reading for faster readers more than for slower readers.

Isolation prioritization tool: revision, adaptation and application.

The provision of single rooms for the care of patients who require isolation may not match the number required. Placing patients in isolation facilities may have an effect on their psychological wellbeing and the quality of care delivered. To ensure a rational and consistent approach to the prioritization of single room usage, an existing prioritization system was revised. This was validated by a group of experts and tested in an acute hospital. A simple short cut guide was developed and used.

Postorgasm illness syndrome--a spectrum of illnesses.

INTRODUCTION: We describe two men with marked symptoms following orgasm. In each case, the symptoms were consistent with those found in postorgasm illness syndrome (POIS). AIM: Further elucidation of the cause of the patients' symptoms. METHODS: Both cases were investigated for causes of POIS with biochemical, hormonal, neurological, autonomic, cardiological, and psychological workup. RESULTS: Extensive investigation did not reveal a major organic cause for these patients' symptoms. Detailed history revealed likely differing etiologies in each case. In one case, the symptom picture suggested cytokine release, and, in fact, the patient subjectively improved by 80% on taking nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs just prior to and for a day or two after orgasm. The other case appeared to have an ethnic/cultural etiology that was associated with the "Dhat" syndrome. CONCLUSION: The apparent differing etiologies/clinical associations of these cases highlight the need for careful history, examination, and investigations in patients presenting with POIS. We recommend that each case needs individual consideration and investigation, and treatment needs to be tailored to the likely cause. It seems likely that POIS represents a spectrum of syndromes of differing etiologies. Further research into the neurobiochemical sequelae of orgasm will be useful in understanding the pathological processes in these cases.

Phonology is fundamental in skilled reading: evidence from ERPs.

Research consistently indicates the importance of phonological processing in early reading development, yet the role of phonology in skilled reading is still not well understood. Two event-related potential (ERP) experiments investigated the nature and time course of phonological processing during skilled visual word recognition using a masked priming paradigm. Phonological syllable priming was examined by presenting prime-target pairs either with the same first syllable, or with one letter more or fewer. In this visually matched design, items like po## -PONY and pon### -PONDER appeared in the congruent condition. Conversely, pon# -PONY and po#### -PONDER appeared in the incongruent condition. In both experiments, the magnitude of the first negative peak (N1) was reduced in the phonologically congruent condition as compared to the incongruent condition. This syllable congruency effect is the first neurophysiological evidence for phonological syllable activation in the initial moments of visual word recognition. The early time course of this activation indicates that suprasegmental phonological processing is fundamental to skilled reading.

Skilled readers begin processing sub-phonemic features by 80 ms during visual word recognition: evidence from ERPs.

Two masked priming experiments investigated the time-course of the activation of sub-phonemic information during visual word recognition. EEG was recorded as participants read targets with voiced and unvoiced final consonants (e.g., fad and fat), preceded by nonword primes that were incongruent or congruent in voicing and vowel duration (e.g., fap or faz). Experiment 1 used a long duration mask (100 ms) between prime and target, whereas Experiment 2 used a short mask (22 ms). Phonological feature congruency began modulating the amplitude of brain potentials by 80 ms; the feature incongruent condition evoked greater negativity than the feature congruent condition in both experiments. The early onset of the congruency effect indicates that skilled readers initially activate sub-phonemic feature information during word identification. Congruency effects also appeared in the middle and late periods of word recognition, suggesting that readers use phonological representations in multiple aspects of visual word recognition.

Prosodic phonological representations early in visual word recognition.

Two experiments examined the nature of the phonological representations used during visual word recognition. We tested whether a minimality constraint (R. Frost, 1998) limits the complexity of early representations to a simple string of phonemes. Alternatively, readers might activate elaborated representations that include prosodic syllable information before lexical access. In a modified lexical decision task (Experiment 1), words were preceded by parafoveal previews that were congruent with a target's initial syllable as well as previews that contained 1 letter more or less than the initial syllable. Lexical decision times were faster in the syllable congruent conditions than in the incongruent conditions. In Experiment 2, we recorded brain electrical potentials (electroencephalograms) during single word reading in a masked priming paradigm. The event-related potential waveform elicited in the syllable congruent condition was more positive 250-350 ms posttarget compared with the waveform elicited in the syllable incongruent condition. In combination, these experiments demonstrate that readers process prosodic syllable information early in visual word recognition in English. They offer further evidence that skilled readers routinely activate elaborated, speechlike phonological representations during silent reading.